Prostate Cancer Treatment

Introduction The treatment of prostate cancer is normally accompanied by some undesirable side effects such as bowel and urinary incontinence, and most commonly, erectile dysfunction. According to Klein (2000), of all these any other side effects, it is the erectile dysfunction (ED) that is the most common and the one that bother’s most men because they fear that it may negatively interfere with their sex lives.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Prostate Cancer Treatment specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Yeung, Escalante and Gagel (2009) observe that most of the post-prostate cancer treatment men fear that the treatment may not only significantly reduce the quality of their lives, but may also result in an increase in anxiety, depression and strains in their relationships with their partners. It is with such concerns that the issue of sexual treatment after prostate surgery has become meaningful and significa nt in the field of the psychology of sexuality. Even though the chances of these individuals developing sexual dysfunction after the treatment are high, it is not all lost for such patients because there are some forms of treatment that have been developed to help them regain their sexual functions. Background There is still no evidence that suggests that prostate cancer causes sexual dysfunction (Yarbro, Wujcik Gobel, 2010) but several studies have revealed that the methods utilized in treating prostate cancer can actually lead to erectile dysfunction. Erectile dysfunction may psychologically make it difficult for one to have intimacy even without penetrative sex, and this can in turn result in other negative effects. According to an article published by Bivins (2008), prostate cancer treatment methods including cryosurgery, removal of prostate gland by surgery, hormone therapy, and radiation therapy, combined with other determining factors during the recovery period all contribut e to the chances of a post-prostate cancer treatment individual developing ED and sexual dysfunction. As noted by Suls, Davison and Kaplan (2010), some of the treatment methods have a higher chance of resulting to ED compared to the others. Statement of the issue While it is true that the treatment of prostate cancer affects sexual performance, there are several treatments available that could help affected couples get intimate, even without vaginal intercourse. Definition of terms Erectile Dysfunction: According to Melman and Newnham (2011), erectile dysfunction is the inability of the penis to erect even with stimulation.Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Sexual dysfunction: According to Mulhall (2009), sexual dysfunction is the inability to have sexual intimacy. Penetrative or vaginal sexual Intercourse: Mulhall (2010) defines penetrative sexual intercourse as intimacy which e ntails sexual contact between the female and male sexual organs. Literature review Melman and Newnham (2011) point out that before treating sexual dysfunction problems, it is first of all important to distinguish between the physically and psychologically causes of sexual dysfunction and that it is only from the psychological causes that an individual can fully recover. Melman and Newnham (2011), also observe that it is normal for men who have undergone prostate cancer treatment to suffer from ED for some period of time, usually for two years or slightly more. This inability to sustain an erection may lead to frustrations and anxiety, especially if there is some pressure to perform from his partner, and these may make it difficult to share intimate moments. The psychological situation of the men during the recovery years plays an important role in determining if they will fully recover from sexual dysfunction because by harboring negative thoughts regarding full recovery, one can ac tually lose the desire to get intimate with his partner (Penedo, Antoni Schneidermann, 2008). As observed by Ganz and Horning (2007), the loss of the desire to get intimate with one’s partner after prostate cancer treatment is in many times multi-factorial, rather than a purely hormonal problem. The authors point out that risk factors associated with cancer treatment including post-treatment fatigue , nausea or pain, perceiving oneself as less attractive for sex after cancer, genital blood flow, and loss of sexual pleasure due to change in skin sensitivity, to mention but a few, can reduce an individual’s desire for intimacy, even if does not involve penetrative sex.. Given the numerous challenges that can affect sexual activity following treatment of prostate cancer, oncology nurses and other health care providers should educate couples on other viable ways of getting intimate without penetrative sexual intercourse. Intimacy without sexual intercourse can be just as satisfying as penetrative sex especially if the communication between the couple is good. A couple that openly expresses their feelings to each other can easily find numerous ways of working out their intimacy needs (Torrey Stoiber, 2008).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Prostate Cancer Treatment specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More One of the most important things that a couple can do as soon as possible is to readjust their expectations regarding intimacy. In instead of comparing the post-treatment intimacy to the pre-treatment intimacy, the couple should focus on how to make the present, post treatment sexual life more enjoyable (Hennenfent, 2005). Yet another treatment plan for post-cancer couples is to begin Sensate Focus Exercises which teach couples how to derive sexual pleasure from touching. These exercises relieve the couple from the pressure to have penetrative sex and therefore help to refocus the minds of couples from the ED problems that they are facing (Pachana, Laidlaw Knight, 2010). These exercises can also lay the foundation for new ideas of intimacy in a relationship. As observed by Rainey and Rainey (1995), women miss casual touching as much as (sometimes more than) penetrative sex. Couples should therefore engage in physically touching each other as a way of getting intimate. Evaluation and critique From the above literature review, one thing that comes out clear is that the biggest concern after treatment of prostate cancer is intimacy among affected couples. While the sexual performance of most affected men changes following the prostate cancer treatment and they may never be able to have sex and orgasms as they used to before the treatment, couples can still get intimate after prostate cancer without engaging in penetrative sex. Summary and future directions Given that prostate cancer treatment interferes with the sexual performance, in particular vaginal intercourse, the affected couples should seek help from health care providers who specialize in sexuality on ways of continuing with their intimacy. References Bivins ( Feb, 2008). After the prostate cancer diagnosis. Ebony,63 (4) 50-52 Ganz, P.A. Horning, S. (2007). Cancer survivorship: today and tomorrow. New York, NY: Springer. Hennenfent, B. (2005). Surviving prostate cancer without surgery. Roseville, IL: Roseville books.Advertising Looking for essay on health medicine? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Klein, E.A. (2000). Management of Prostate Cancer. Totowa, NJ: Humana Press. Melman, A. Newnham, R. (2011). After prostate cancer: A what-comes-next guide to a safe and informed recovery. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Mulhall, J.P. (2009). Sexual Function in the prostate cancer patient. New York: Springer. Pachana, N., Ladlaw, K. Knight, B. (2010). Casebook of clinical Geropsychology: International Perspectives on practice. New York, NY: Oxford University Press. Penedo, F.J., Antoni, M.H. Schneiderman, N. (2008). Cognitive-Behavioral Stress management for prostate cancer recovery. New York, NY: Oxford university Press. Rainey, D Rainey, B. (1995). Moments together for couples: devotions for drawing near God and one another. Ventura, CA: Gospel light Suls, J.M. Davidson, K.W. Kaplan, R.M. (2010). Handbook of health Psychology and Behavioral Medicine. New York, NY: Guilford Press. Torrey, E Stoiber, C. (2008). Surviving prostate cancer: what you need to know to make inf ormed decisions. New York, NY: Yale University Press. Yabro, C.H., Wujcik, D., Gobel, B.H. (2010). Cancer Nursing: principles and practice. Sudbury, MA :Jones Barlett Learning. Yeung, S.J., Escalante, C.P Gagel, R.F. (2009). Medical Care of Cancer Patients. Shelton, CT: PMPH-USA. This essay on Prostate Cancer Treatment was written and submitted by user Jayson Curry to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

Effect of Mno2 on the Decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide Essay Example

Effect of Mno2 on the Decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide Essay Example Effect of Mno2 on the Decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide Paper Effect of Mno2 on the Decomposition of Hydrogen Peroxide Paper Chemistry Catalyst Report Aim I am trying to investigate the effect of the mass of magnesium dioxide used on the speed of the reaction of 2H2O2(aq) ? 2H2O(l) + O2(g). I hypothesize that the speed of the reaction is proportional to the rate of decomposition. Independent Variable The mass of MnO2 used Dependent Variable The rate of decomposition through the amount of mass lost Controlled Variables Environment of the experiment Stay in the same place to carry out the experiment and finish the experiment as fast as possible in case of a sudden change in some areas of the environment Volume of H2O2 usedMeasure the volume using a measuring cylinder Uncontrollable Variable The temperature of the H2O2 cannot be controlled because the process, which I am trying to speed up through adding catalysts, is an exothermic reaction, meaning that heat is given off in the process. Because it gives off heat, the temperature cannot be controlled and this would affect my results, as there would be more than one dependent variable. I was only allowed H2O2 from the same source, which means no fresh source of H2O2 at a controlled temperature. I could not wait for the H2O2 to decompose to a certain temperature because that would take too long. I could not use the catalysts to help the H2O2 to decompose to that temperature for the experiment to start because it would be difficult to gage when to take out the catalyst and catalysts are unable to be used up. Equipment ?Top pan balance ?H2O2 – 300ml ?MnO2 –5g ?50ml Beakers 10 ?Conical flasks 5 ?Spatula ?Cotton Wool ?Measuring cylinder Diagram Method 1. Gather the equipment and set it up like in the diagram above. 2. Using a top pan balance, a beaker and a spatula, measure 0. 1g, 0. 2g, 0. 3g, 0. 4g and 0. 5g of MnO2 and place them in different beakers. 3. Measure 50ml of H2O2 using a measuring cylinder and fill 5 beakers with 50ml of H2O2 each. 4. Place a new conical flask and enough cotton wool to cover the hole of the conical flask on the top pan balance. Hit the â€Å"TARE† button. 5. Pour in 50ml of H2O2 6. Record the mass shown 7. Pour in 0. 1g of MnO2 and cover the hole of the conical flask with the cotton wool 8. The total weight of the solution would then be the mass recorded in step 5 plus the mass of the MnO2 in step 7 9. Start timing when the MnO2 is added. 10. Record the mass shown on the top pan balance every 5 seconds. Catalysts are substances, which help speed up chemical reactions. Reactions happen when the two reacting particles collide, but if the force of their collision is not above a certain level, the reaction would not happen. This minimum amount of energy required for the reaction to take place between the particles is called activation energy. Catalysts are useful because they provide an alternative surface for the particles to react, with a lower activation energy. The disadvantage of using a catalyst is that the reactions are not as energetic and thus the product is less. For this reaction, less oxygen would be produced. Catalysts are never used up. And because they are never used up, we are able to collect them back after the reaction, still as good as before without changing chemically. Before adding the catalysts, only some particles have enough energy to react. It is represented by the green section. The rest of the particles that cannot pass the activation energy barrier is represented by the blue. After adding the catalysts, the catalysts provide an alternative path for the particles to react. The average activation energy is lowered and now, more particles are able to react. This graph shows the before and after effect of adding a catalyst on the activation energy required for the reaction to start. Through the results obtained, it is clear that the mass of catalyst used is proportional to the speed of the reaction. The higher the mass of catalyst used, the more particles of catalyst is in the solution, the more alternative paths of reacting is given to the particles, therefore the faster the reaction. It can thus be concluded theoretically and practically that the more mass of catalyst used, the faster the reaction rate. I have graphed the results from the experiment. The above table shows the gradients I had derived from the graphs. All the results fit my hypothesis except for 0. 3g and 0. 4g. From the graph, it can be derived that even though the rate of reaction is proportional to the catalyst, it is not directly proportional. Sources of Error ?Results from obtained from this lab experiment can never be accurate because of a few reasons. Firstly, catalysts and reaction are sped up by heat. The decomposition of hydrogen peroxide to water and oxygen is an exothermic reaction. This means that the decomposition reaction gives off heat. Because there is no way I could do all the experiment at the same time, the temperature of the hydrogen peroxide changes every time I start the experiment. I have explained this more clearly in the section of uncontrollable variables. ?Next, the beakers that the hydrogen peroxide was stored in were not washed clean and not washed by the lab technicians. This meant that the beakers were washed by the previous batch of students who used them and they might not have washed them properly. Because the students are also not provided with chemicals to wash the beaker such that it is clean of impurities, some of the beakers used may have been contaminated. ?When I was pouring the hydrogen peroxide into the conical flask using a funnel, because of liquid having a tension property, some of the hydrogen peroxide â€Å"stuck† on to the funnel. This meant that not all of the 50ml of hydrogen peroxide was poured in. ?Because it would be hard to measure 0. g of MnO2 in a conical flask, I measured it in a beaker. By putting it in a beaker, when I tried to pour it into the conical flask, some of the powder got stuck onto the beaker, due to static electricity. Ways to improve Have the lab technician clean the equipment with proper cleaning methods first, preventing contamination. Use freshly made hydrogen peroxide and use it for the experiment straight away or use the hydrogen peroxide for the experiment after a timed period of maybe 5 minutes, this way all the hydrogen peroxide used from the fresh source is always decomposed to that same level. Use a conical flask with a larger neck or use a big beaker, this way I would not have had to use a beaker because the reaction is not very violent, the liquid from the spewing bubbles would not burst out of the beaker if it was big enough. Because the masses of MnO2 was small, I could have measured the mass of the MnO2 on another spatula. If the MnO2 still stuck to the spatula due to static electricity, even less MnO2 would be stuck to the spatula because the surface area of which the MnO2 is exposed to is smaller.

Text in Context Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Text in Context - Essay Example This paper will seek to establish how this movie is fundamentally anti-romantic in its approach to love and life in general. Unlike other coming-of-age movies that offer up answers or possible ways out to this ‘quarter-life crisis’, Tiny Furniture merely brings out the humor in the situation; a situation that is necessarily devoid of meaning or significance and must, at best, be survived. The film opens with Aura (Lena Dunham) returning home from college. She enters her home with ‘Honey, I’m home!’ This going ignored, she calls out again ‘Family?’ This ironic opening sets the tone for the rest of the film which continuously makes fun of itself and its protagonists, most notably of Aura/Dunham herself. The hopelessness of Aura’s situation is ironically presented even in the film’s promotional poster which declares â€Å"Aura would like you to know that she’s having a very, very hard time.† Dunham, then, very consciously locates the film in the context of the comedic genre. The master of self-deprecatory ironic humor Woody Allen is also invoked in the film when Jed is seen, more than once, reading a copy of Without Feathers in bed. Although the movie is not replete with comic situations or dialogue, the ironic touch and the invocations of other comic legends places it quite firmly in the comic tradition. As far as generic contexts go, Tiny Furniture also belongs to that sub-genre of independent film called ‘mumblecore’ that has emerged recently. Characterized by its naturalist approach, often-improvised dialogue and low budget and production values, this new trend in independent films, has been grabbing critics’ attention over the last couple of years (‘Mumblecore’). Amy Taubin in her review of the genre declares that it is almost entirely homogenous: The directors are all male middle-class

Housing Estate in Cold-Water Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Housing Estate in Cold-Water - Case Study Example This report pertains to the development of Cold waters housing initiative as apparent from the computer-graphed image above which will mean that the current map of the Cold-Water will have a large number of landscape changes made to it with a possible usage of land swaps and remodeling.At the outset it is possible to see from the graphically configured diagram of the Waterside View above it can be seen that it is not only a housing area but the inclusion of the aquatic leisure centre is all set to increase the commercial value of the estate. The plan is to focus upon terraced houses and low rise flats for an increase in the landscape beauty. The housing estate will be complete with a new leisure centre ,a public covered swimming pool, a training pool, and generous opportunities for gymnastic and sports activities. It is also planned that there will be two nearby single storey retail warehouses with expansive surface car parking for them and n restaurants/cafes with outside seating areas for the summer. All vehicle servicing will be underground. As mentioned before the housing plan includes a lot of low rise flats which will be around this commercial property and a liberal amount of landscaping will be provided from the dock area above. This area was formerly a low wage income area before the government too initiatives to bring out the commercial potential of this place. The residential housing is for both commercial and council purposes. There is a total of 55,600 sq m of residential housing available 60% of which is based on the PFI initiative and will be sold or leased back to the Local Government.The problem here is that due to the lack of labour etc there are likely to be delays in building which may cause fines being imposed upon the constructing firms.These delays may also be aggravated by the scientific protests going on. The idea for the commercial accommodation is feasible enough as the plan includes reasonably priced properties along with balconies and roof gardens and secure car-parking underground. The demographics, densities and styles around the locality and styles of local housing developments There are many neighbourhoods surrounding Cold water like as Steel Town, Chemical Town, Coal Town where is there is a rampant issue of economic decline and a change in function. New

Introdution To Management Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2500 words

Introdution To Management - Case Study Example d with a business opting for operating from another location; more often these include low cost, higher quality, lower risk, lower employee turnover, higher profits, to bring about a change in the way business is done, etc. The parent company’s goals can be varied, and accordingly the goals and objectives of outsourced company are laid (Bangeman, 2005). Exactly for these reasons, Gail Lee, the managing director of Melbourne’s fashion retailer, Leethal Fashion Accessories, offshored some of its business to India; this included creation of ready-to-wear garments based on Australian designs that were sent by Leethal Fashion Accessories and also imported jewelry to be sold in local departmental stores. Besides the reasons for this business offshoring, LFA had to face some issues with respect to receiving the completed products on time due to delay in transport. Other issues were caused due to language and cultural barriers, which sometimes lead to misinterpretations and misunderstanding in the business dealing. These issues lower the confidence of Australian entrepreneurs in Indian business systems; yet, the huge difference in labour costs tends to outweigh losses caused by other issues (Hatch, 2006). Indian economy is diverse, and ranges from traditional village farming to modern manufacturing and services. The contribution of services sector is said to be the maximum to the growth of India’s economy, which indicates availability of surplus labour. Statistics indicate that major portion of the services is provided by the English-speaking educated people in the field of Information Technology in the form of software services export (Rushton & Walker, 2007). Another major contributor to the economy is the small-scale industry segment which plays a pivotal role in employment generation with low capital investment. Estimates indicate that over 18 million people are employed in this industrial segment (John, M.S, 2002). Cottage industries are mostly run by

Nature versus Nurture: The debate

Nature versus Nurture: The debate A View of Two Fields of Thought: Nature versus Nurture A debate has been brewing in the field of education and philosophy for hundreds of years. Many intellectuals have pondered over this subject and have taken one side or the other, but to this day no definite answer exists. The battle of nature versus nurture, or rationalism versus empiricism, has so long been debated and has been addressed in so much literature that one would be hard pressed to find an educator who hasnt thought about this topic and considered the merits of each school of thought. This debate affects how educators view their students as well as how they believe children can be taught, so it is important to explore the history of each side and investigate the evidence so educators as well as parents can understand how to access their childs potential. In 380 B.C.E. Plato wrote a play titled Meno. In this work, he discussed through his characters how intelligence was based on recollection. This concept was derived from the idea that once a human being dies, his soul is reincarnated into another human being and that newly born person has all of the knowledge that his former life possessed. Therefore, Plato believed in the idea that knowledge was innate (Allen 165-174). He believed that people were divided into social or intellectual classes by the type of metal that supposedly ran through their souls. These metals were gold, silver, brass and iron and they were used to keep the social hierarchy in check. If someone were believed to have gold in their soul, they would theoretically govern the state and be of superior intelligence. Someone who had silver in their soul was seen as a warrior of the state and if someone was believed to have brass or iron in their soul, they were never meant for a high ranking position in the social spher e but to dwell on the earth as members of the lower class (Voegelin 230). The next great mind to enter the nature versus nurture debate came around in the mid 1600s. Rene Descartes created an entire school that is known today as the Cartesian school of thought. Descartes and his followers adopted the idea of dualism, meaning that the soul is separate from the body and that the soul does not have a physical manifestation (Gardner 33). This idea goes along well with the previously mentioned theories of Plato. In a dedicatory letter to the Sorbonne, Descartes attempted to prompt his literary work, Mediations on First Philosophy. This letter outlined Descartes key ideas concerning knowledge and dualism. He emphasized that all that is known about God is manifested in people, and to figure out those manifestations one must use reasoning, which takes place in the brain. Also throughout the letter Descartes made it a point to mention how people have certain aptitudes for different vocations, such as metaphysical studies or geometry; he also explored the idea that people can be intellectually gifted, as to say they were granted their intelligence from birth. Descartes had little evidence to support this reasoning beyond his heavy reliance on philosophy and his strong religious beliefs. Like Plato, he believed that the soul lived on after the body had expired (Descartes 3-11). As time moved on, the nature argument started to move away from the religious vantage point and more toward scientific research. Francis Galton would be among the first men who conducted such experiments. In Galtons book Hereditary Genius he stated the argument that the high reputation of a man could be used as an accurate assessment of high ability. He studied eminent men such as the Judges of England from 1660 to 1868 and also the Statesmen during the reign of George III. Along with these men, Galton also studied men of a wide variety of professions since he believed it was important to study many different grades of ability (Galton 2). He studied nearly 300 families and concluded that eminent men do tend produce eminent sons (307). From this conclusion, Galton set out to continue his research, only this time he wouldnt focus his attention on the biographies of successful men; he would continue his research with the study of twins. Through the process of sending out surveys to people who either were twins or those who were close relatives of twins, Galton found further support for his rationalist theories. At first he addressed a number of twins who were very similar from birth, and then he addressed those sets of twins who were dissimilar from the very beginning, which he considered more relevant to his cause. He presented several testimonies from parents of twins stating that even though the twins were nurtured the exact same way from the moment they were born, they showed great difference. A specific case stated that two male twins acted as compliments to one another. One boy would possess a certain set of qualities and attributes where as the other would be the polar opposite of his twin brother who had received the same nurture. Galton states that through all of his correspondences, he could not find one case where the twins started out different and were assimilated through nurture (Galton 391-406). Galton continued to study the issue of hereditary intelligence in many other books and journals, but one his most famous proposals was his ideas on eugenics. Because Galton believed that knowledge was inherited, he thought that it would benefit humanity if only intelligent people were allowed to reproduce. In â€Å"Eugenics: Its Definition, Scope, and Aims†, Galton laid out his plan for how this process would go about happening. He went as far as to call this way of living a â€Å"new religion† that should be fully pushed upon people so they whole heartedly accept it (Galton ). We now know that for a period in history, Galtons ideas were successful and many people around the world were sterilized against their will as a way to attempt to breed the perfect human race (Dikotter). In Galtons later research he discovered â€Å"regression to the mean†, which is the idea that human beings tend to move toward the average no matter how above or below average their parent s are. This discovery disappointed his hopes of breeding the perfect human race (Galton â€Å"Regression†). Another interesting contributor to the nature argument was Cesare Lombroso. In his book, â€Å"Crime, its causes and remedies†, Lombroso attempted to lie out the naturally occurring tendencies of a criminal. He studied groups of people in Europe and came to the conclusion that features such as hair color, skull size and facial structure were indicators that a person was innately criminal. He also determined that race was a factor in finding naturally born criminals as well. He used the Jewish people as an example for his race theory. He said that Jews were much less likely to commit crimes compared to the gypsies, who he believed where in the same socioeconomic class. Lombroso wrote about schooling as well. He believed that if a student in elementary school displayed the characteristics that he had categorized as criminal then the student should be taken away from the other children and be caught in a way to discourage the innate criminality from surfacing (Lombroso). Much more recently, Charles Murray has addressed this debate and has strongly lobbied for inherited intelligence. In the book â€Å"The Bell Curve† written by Richard Herrnstein and Charles Murray, these men aimed to prove that Americas growing inequality was due to the fact that skilled labor was much more valuable today than unskilled labor. Because both Herrnstein and Murray believed that IQ directly correlated with skill, they believed that the gap between people in society will only continue to grow as unskilled jobs fade away (Murray bell curve). In an article written by Murray published in the Wall Street Journal, he claimed that a persons IQ is directly connected to their intelligence and that that number cannot possibly change no matter what kind of education is given to that student. Through his investigation, he found that when someone tried to raise their IQ, it only went up an average of about 8 points as after time progressed, the number returned back to what it had originally been. Considering the national assessment of educational progress scores, 36% of all fourth graders were below the standards of basic achievement in reading; Murray stated that this number should be considered acceptable since 36% of fourth graders, according to the normal distribution, have IQs lower than 95. He even made the bold claim that if you argue that an IQ test doesnt determine intelligence, then G, someones natural intellectual ability, does (Murray Newspaper). The other side of the nature versus nurture debate lies with those who believe nurture is the predominate cause of intelligence and personality. A few years after Descartes died, John Locke came forward with his views on rationalism verses empiricism. He thought it was wrong to believe a small child had any innate ideas, and he is well known for his theory that a mind is like a blank, white piece of paper that parents and teachers can write on as they see fit to shape and mold the child into adulthood. Locke believed that ideas came from two places: first from sensory information and second from reflections (115spiral). In Lockes â€Å"Essay Concerning Human Understanding† he attacked the theory of innate knowledge by assuming that if there were innate principles in the human mind, everyone would agree on these principles. Because not all people agreed, it proved to Locke that there were in fact no innate principals at all. Also, in what seems like a direct attack at Descartes , Locke argued the innateness of God to be fictional because there are cultures all around the world that do not recognize any god at all (Locke). Around the same time as Locke, George Berkeley achieved recognition for his theories on empiricism as well. Berkeley believed that the mind was what everything in existence revolved around and that matter did not actually exist, thinking that all things in the world were composed of ideas (Flage). He thought that all things were either sensations or perceptions and one can only know what one sees. Berkeley believed that when a person looks at something, they only see the appearance of the object and not the real qualities which arent perceivable to anyone. Human senses are the only way people can understand the things in the world (Berkeley 193-215). The third well know empiricist of the time was David Hume. Hume believed that what was in the mind could be broken down into basic sensations. He theorized that thinking was just a byproduct of disconnected sensations and ideas were like vague copies of distinct perceptions or impressions and everything past those ideas and perceptions were unnecessary to explore (D. Murray 11-12). Years later in the late 1800s, John Watson published a book called Behaviorism. He presented a thesis about human instincts and discussed what human beings are born being able to do. He claims that those functions are in fact not instincts as instincts were defined at the time. He claimed that everything that people had initially thought were instincts were actually learned behaviors that came about as a result of training. On this evidence, he stated â€Å"that there is no such thing as an inheritance of capacity, talent, temperament, mental constitution and characteristics† (Watson 75). He believed that if a child has a father that is a good swordsman, the child will only become a good swordsman if the father nurtures him to be so, not just because he has his fathers genes. He supported this idea by referencing all the different customs and tendencies of people all across the world and how they all differ due to their culture and environment (74-75). One relevantly recent phenomenon is the Flynn Effect, which is describes as significant increases in IQ over time. This effect has been attributed to a variety of factors such as â€Å"improved nutrition; increased environmental complexity; and family, parental, school and methodological factors† (Daley 215). All of these components of the Flynn affect were at first criticized for focusing on only industrialized and urban areas, but a group of people from the University of California went to Kenya to help strengthen the Flynn Effects environmental explanations (215). The study took place in the Embu District of Kenya. The first research was done in 1984 and then again in 1998 with two different groups of children. The researches administered three tests to the group of children they were studying. The tests were: the Ravens Progressive Matrices, the verbal meaning test, and the digit span test. It was determined that the second group of children in 1998 scored higher than those in 1984, proving that the Flynn Effect was definitely present. To explain these increases the researchers looked to see if the environmental factors had changed during the 14 years. Nutrition became better, which is represented by the increase in kilocalories and protein from 1984 to 1998 as well as a decrease in children who had an insufficient caloric intake. The environment also became more complex, with the addition of a few televisions as well as a majority of parents reporting to have read a newspaper or magazines at least once a week. Both of these factors had not existed in the community during the 1984 study. In addition, family size decreased in Kenya, which allowed the households to spend more on the individual children and the family structure shifted from nuclear families to single parent households run by the mother. Parental education and literacy also increased during the 14 years, going from 26% of mothers reporting no schooling in 1984 to only 8.7% in 1998. Schooling didnt change much during the time period, but there was an increase in the number of children who attended Sunday school, so this could be seen as an extra day of schooling. The health of the children didnt improve and the hemoglobin counts actually worsened over the time period, but the most severe causes of anemia decreased from 1984 to 1989 (217-219). The main impacts on the children according to this study were parental literacy, family stature and health. All of the children in the study belonged to the same tribe so the researchers believed this to be proof that the environment a child is raised in has much affect on his or her intelligence (219). One of the most recent empiricists is Geoffrey Canada. Canada grew up in inner city New York but moved to Long Island with his grandparents in his early teens. He graduated from high school and went to college and then attended graduate school at Harvard University. Canada eventually became the CEO and president of Harlem Childrens Zone. Currently, the program spans 97 blocks in New York City and caters to nearly 8000 students. He whole heartedly believes that with the right amount of guidance and direction, the struggling students in inner cities can learn to appreciate learning and to increase their intelligence through their environment in the classroom (Moore). In Paul Toughs book â€Å"Whatever it takes: Geoffrey Canadas quest to change Harlem and America† the program is described in great detail and it shows how the lives of the children have been adjusted to foster learning (Tough). The programs success became evident in 2009 â€Å"when its charter school, the Promise Academy, eliminated the achievement gap for math between average black students and white students in New York City† (Moore). The debate over nature versus nurture spans back to when philosophy was predominantly the way of explaining the acquisition of knowledge and continues in more recent times with scientific evidence consisting of facts and numbers giving support to one side or the other. Both the recent and historical back and forth between great scholars helps each individual, be they parent or educator, come to their own personal conclusions of whether nature or nurture is the more dominant factor contributing to a persons knowledge and IQ. Works Cited Allen, R.E.. Anamnesis in Platos Meno and Phaedo.The Review of Metaphysics13 (1959):165-174.JSTOR. Flage. 29 Mar. 2010. Berkeley, George. A Treatise Concerning the Principles of Human Knowledge. sax: Indypublish.Com, 2003. 193-215. Print. Daley, Tamara, Shannon Whaley, Marian Sigman, Michael Espinosa, and Charlotte Neumann. IQ on the Rise: The Flynn Effect in Rural Kenyan Children . Psychological Science 14 (2003): 215-219. JSTOR. Flage. 30 Mar. 2010. Descartes, Rene. Meditations on First Philosophy. The Philosophical Writings of Descartes (Volume II). New York: Cambridge University Press, 1985. 3. Print. Dikotter, Frank. Race Culture: Recent Perspectives on the History of Eugenics. The American Historical Review 103 (1998): n. pag. JSTOR. Flage. 29 Mar. 2010. Flage, Daniel. George Berkeley (1685-1753). Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy . James Madison University, 4 Apr. 2004. Flage. 28 Mar. 2010. . Galton, Francis . Regression Towards Mediocrity in Hereditary Stature. The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 15 (1886): n. pag. Jstor. Flage. 2 Apr. 2010. Galton, Francis. The History of Twins, as a Criterion of the Relative Powers of Nature and Nurture. The Journal of the Anthropological Institute of Great Britain and Ireland 5 (1876): 391-406. JSTOR. Flage. 29 Mar. 2010. Galton, Francis. Eugenics: Its Definition, Scope, and Aims. The American Journal of Sociology 10 (1904): n. pag. JSTOR. Flage. 28 Mar. 2010. Galton, Sir Francis. Hereditary Genius: An Inquiry Into Its Laws and Consequences (Classic Reprint). asdbjsadjkas: Forgotten Books, 2009. Print. Gardner, Howard, Mindy Kornhaber, and Warren K. Wake. Intelligence: Multiple Perspectives. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing, 1995. 33-36. Print. Herrnstein, Richard J., and Charles Murray. Bell Curve: Intelligence and Class Structure in American Life (A Free Press Paperbacks Book). 1st Free Press Pbk. Ed ed. New York City: Free Press, 1996. Print. Lombroso, Cesare. Crime: Its Causes and Remedies. 1918: Legal Classics Library, A Division Of Gryphon Editions, 1994. Print. Moore, Jina. Empathy is his superpower / The Christian Science Monitor CSMonitor.com. The Christian Science Monitor CSMonitor.com. N.p., 7 Sept. 2009. Flage. 4 Apr. 2010. . Murray, Charles. Intelligence in the Classroom Half of all children are below average, and teachers can do only so much for them. . Wall Street Journal n/a (2007): 1-3. Print. Murray, D.W.. What is the Western Concept of the Self? on Forgetting David Hume. Ethos 21 (1993): 11-12. JSTOR. Flage. 30 Mar. 2010. Tough, Paul. Whatever It Takes: Geoffrey Canadas Quest to Change Harlem and America. New York: Mariner Books, 2009. Print. Voegelin, Eric. The La. Plato. 1 ed. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri Press, 2000. 230. Print. Watson, John. B.. Are There Any Human Instincts?. Behaviorism. San Diego: West Press, 2008. 74-75. Print. Theories of Crime and Gender: Research Study Theories of Crime and Gender: Research Study Crime Gender __________________________________ Contents (Jump to) Introduction    Why Gender? Why Crime? Ground Rules – Laying the Foundation for a Thorough Discussion: Feminism Sociological Motivation Offenders – Women who Violate the â€Å"Norm† Victims –   In their â€Å"natural† place†¦ In the System – The Influence of Dominant Social Structures Paradigms Field Perspective – A Short Experimental Inquiry into Current Perceptions about Women Violent Crime The Verdict – Moving Forward with Facts†¦ and assumptions References __________________________________ Appendix A Research Surveys Appendix B Annotated SPPS Output Appendix C Raw Data Introduction Why Gender? Why Crime? The answer to the question posed above could be any one of the following: In the tradition of Sir Edmund Hillary in referring to why he climbed Mt. Everst, simply, â€Å"Because it is there†. In the modern tradition of rhetoric, â€Å"Why not?† In ‘typical’ answer one might expect, because both are compelling, engaging topics in which virtually everyone has a vested interest in and both are issues fundamental to the social and political fabric of modern life. The truth is simply â€Å"all of the above† with a heavy emphasis on #3. These topics have the fortune of being both broad and â€Å"loaded†. It is broad in the sense that both subjects, in and of themselves, is the subject of the life’s work of numerous notable academians as well as that of many law enforcement, social service and legal professionals. Without question, the subjects, especially gender, is loaded with emotion. While many might believe that feminism is a wasted effort to redirect attention and funds, others pursue the topic with all the righteous vigor of that associated with the abolition of slavery. The topics of gender and crime would be much easier to cover if, like a traditional Venn diagram, there were but a small area of overlap. In contrast, the two subjects seem to only grow when combined. With this in mind, a logical treatise on the subject is yet possible by presentation with a logical stepwise progression through fundamental theoretical perspectives followed by the systematic treatment of each key stakeholder. Following this, original research will be reviewed and discussed in light of the foundations laid. Based on these findings, additional lines of inquiry to tease out further salient differences and issues will be proposed. Ground Rules Laying the Foundation for a Thorough Discussion: Feminism Sociological Motivation Feminism It becomes quite apparent with on a cursory review of literature that crime is a man’s arena. Unanimously, researchers agree that the overwhelming majority of crime is committed by men and that gender is the strongest predictor of criminality (Messerschmidt 1997, p. 1; Belknap 2001, pp. xii, 5-6; Heidensohn 1997, p. 491). In itself, this begs the question of why this is the case. Though any answer to this question falls short of the answer to the ‘whole’ question, it is enough to pique interest and to begin a line of inquiry into the simple matter, given the roughly 50/50 gender distribution, why must is be the case that men commit more than ten times the crimes that women do (or are they just not caught?). The simple fact that most crimes are committed by men and not by women creates questions as to the reasoning behind this. Though seemingly far from what might be considered a typical feminist agenda, the issue of crime and gender is indeed a fundamental issue of gender and, therefore central to the thoughts of feminism. In assigning a feminism interest to the issue of gender and crime, additional complications arise due to the multiple perspectives of feminism within its own ranks. While the uninitiated might label all feminists alike, this is not the case as there are five major division within the overall perspective of â€Å"a woman-centered description and explanation of human experience and the social world† (Belknap 2001, p. 16). Below is a table listing each major faction and the outlook regarding key issues: Label Perspective Liberal feminism Believe that women’s access to equality in education, employment and â€Å"public† things in general are blocked by generally accepted (but wrong) principles, policies and laws. Marxist feminism Disciples of this division are most concerned with class and economic inequalities. Socialist feminists Take issue with Marxist’s in that they insist that it is not class alone but also instilled systems and that perpetuate inequalities. Radical feminists Another reaction against Marxist feminism that again goes beyond it in that they emphasize patriarchal systems as sources of inequality and, of all the factions, this one is the most likely to â€Å"hold individual men, rather than society, responsible†. Post-modern feminists Advocates of a multiple perspective view in that the issues that any woman faces are different based upon class, race, age, etc. (Belknap 2001, pp. 16-17) Though feminism is a diverse and sometimes, even divisive, arena, each ‘faction’ has a belief that men and women should receive equal treatment under the law and in society in general. Criminology, with its overwhelming use of masculine models, theories and subjects has largely attempted to impose these models upon female crime, crime victims and system-issues in an effort to explain how and why female crime occurs. Though these models are insightful and useful, they do not fully explain male or female criminology. Consequently, the utilization of the feminist perspective may be quite useful in not only generating models for female offenders but able to shed light on what went wrong with male criminals. This feminist viewpoint is different from other perspectives in the following ways: Gender is not a natural fact but a complex social, historical and cultural product related to but limited to any biological basis for sex. Gender and gender relation create and sustain fundamental order in social life and institutions. Gender relations are based upon masculine and feminine constructs in which men are viewed are socially, politically, and economically dominant over women. The production of knowledge is gendered in that men produce it from their point of view. Women and women’s issues should be at the center of attention and inquiry. (Belknap 2001, p. 13) With the realization that half of the planet’s population is female, the duration of the dominance ‘typical’ perspectives becomes even more curious. Thus, in consideration of crime and gender, the feminist perspective can be enlightening both for the perspective on the majority as well as to provide novel insight into female-committed crime as well as how it is possible that approximately 93% of the [female] populate are ‘crime-free’. Were we able to find this mystery female ‘ingredient’ (is it butterflies?) and, were it able to be instilled, socialized, taught, administered or cultivated in any way in the other half of the population, the world would be virtually crime-free. An example of how the feminist perspective has already fundamentally changed the view of society at large is in regards to rape. Clearly a violent crime, [male] researchers had, prior to the emergence of the feminist perspective, simply gathered data on this crime in the same way that did not fully capture the reality of situation. Specifically, the number of rapes committed each year was reported based upon statistics gathered from police records, a source that is contingent upon a crime being reported and how a crime is defined. As it would turn out, many â€Å"rapes† are not reported and further, the legal definition of â€Å"rape† may not exactly fit the reality of a victim who may have been forced to have sex (Belknap 2001, p. 20). Sociological Motication: Why People Commit Crime There are a number theories as to why crimes are committed. Clearly, there are crimes of passion and as many other reasons as there are unfulfilled desires of the heart. Despite the overwhelming possibilities, there emerge a few predictable bases as well as other â€Å"systematic† rationale for deviant behavior. Without engaging in the broadest of philosophical arguments as to what constitutes â€Å"right† and what separates this from â€Å"wrong†, a key tenet to lawbreaking that we should accepts is that of â€Å"mens rea† or, â€Å"guilty mind†. This Latin phrase is central in that we excerpt from our discussion those who commit a crime â€Å"by mistake, under duress or while insane† (Hampton 1990, pp.1). Consequently, of the millions of crimes committed, it becomes imperative to study the matter to determine to cause and ultimately to prevent their commission in the first place as those who commit such acts do so willfully, with at least s ome idea of the potential penalties and with the knowledge that harm is likely or, depending on the crime, is certain to occur to persons or property though this will be presented not from a individual psychological perspective but rather that of a large scale sociological perspective. Early criminologists believed primarily believed that crime was a ‘class’ problem, an issue that was confined for the most part to lower socio-economic strata (Lynch 1996, pp. 4, 8-9). This view point is still widely held and, as regression goes, still has significant explanatory power though there are other variables in the equation. As criminologist evolved in their thinking, questions of gender and race began to be considered. Messerschmidt, in Crimes as Structured Action (1997), indicates that each of these variables is more than a simple binary-type factor that someone either has or does not. In the same way that feminists recognize different feminist experiences, Messerschmidt puts for a theory of structured action. Similarly, in this model, each factor is contextual and has a relational aspect with regards to the other factors. For example, in some circumstances, one may be a â€Å"male†, in others, and â€Å"African-American† while yet in others â⠂¬Å"working class†. These identities are constructed through social interaction and existing social structures such as church, home, work, etc. Defined in broader terms, social structures are those â€Å"regular and patterned forms of interaction over time that constrain and channel behavior in specific ways† (Messerschmidt 1997, p. 5). These social structures are created by culpable people and perpetuated by the same. In essence the perspectives that one accepts and endorses, even if implicitly, one also perpetuates, even in cases in which one ‘just goes along with it’ as ultimately, there is an accountability that people take on themselves when they choose to construe themselves as a certain way in a specific situation (Messerschmidt 1997, pp. 4-6). Though it is something of the ‘American way’ and reminiscent of some versions of Arthurian legend that a person who is ‘good’ or works ‘hard enough’ is not limited in their ability to achieve success as the world sees its, there seems to be a great correlation between one’s race, class, neighborhood, gender and other key factors as to how one’s life choices play out. This view is specifically termed the â€Å"structured life course† and indicates that ones choices about any given matter are often not so much a function of a true individual choice but are frequently arise of a function of nearly inevitable consequences caused by political, social or economic forces that serve to either increase of decrease the likelihood of any particular act (Lynch 1996, pp. 6-7,15; Messerschmidt 1997, p. 7). In support of this, consider the following facts: 34% of all families living under the poverty line are headed by single female workers. 65% of all females in the work force are either single, widowed, divorced, separated or married to men earning less that $15,000/year. African Americans earn, on average, 64% of what whites earn.  ½ Of African American children grow up in poverty. The wealthiest 1% possess 42% of the wealth in America. Most millionaires are born, not made. Class affects where you grow up, how you grow up, the quality of schools you attend (from elementary through college), occupational choices, career path, whom you marry and the cycle begins again with your children. (Lynch 1997, p.11, 12, 16) An additional explanation for the problem of crime that has the potentiality to build upon the precept of the structured action theory is the theory proposed by Hirschi and Gottfredson in A General Theory of Crime (1990) in which they posit that the critical variable in an individual choosing to commit a crime is that of â€Å"self control†. With the exception of a very few acts, the overwhelming majority of crimes are â€Å"trivial and mundane affairs that result in little loss and less gain† (Brannigan 1997, p. 405). Further, the authors suggest that crimes, though usually unplanned, are the result of deliberate (though poor) choices and incur a degree of recklessness or offensiveness that is variable to the extent of the â€Å"underlying criminality† of the individual. The degree of â€Å"criminality† is closely related to this extent to which they are impulsive and, according, have low self-control. In terms of their character or behavior, this has a number of outcomes which contribute to the ‘downward spiral’: a need for immediate gratification, the â€Å"utilization of simple means†, i.e., pay without performance, sex without marriage or commitment, justice or revenge without court costs or delays, etc., biases towards risky and exciting activities, little interest in â€Å"skilful or sophisticated criminal planning† and, insensitivity to the pain of others (Brannigan 1997, p. 406). From these behaviors, additional consequences follow such as tendencies to: smoke, drink, use drugs, gamble, have children out of marriage and engage in risky, illicit sex, be impulsive and insensitive, physical (i.e., not ‘intellectual’), short-sighted, and nonverbal (Brannigan 1997, p. 406; Storvall, E., L. Wichstrom, H. Pape Nova. 2003, p. 194) The character trait that produces this string of products is produced (or not) in the first six to eight years of childhood (Brannigan 1997, p. 410). During this period, the institution of the family is particularly important as a person is socialized and receives the psychological grounding that produces good impulse- and self-control. Without discounting either the structured action theory, life course theory or the general theory of crime (low self-control), a discussion of criminal behavior would not be complete without a discussion of life cycle theory of Sampson Laub. In the life cycle theory, the idea of internal and external factors in the commission of crime is viewed within the perspective that criminality is a function of age. In this theory, it is noted that, â€Å"the patterns of offending over [an individual’s] life cycle commonly follow an age curve – a peak†¦ which rises throughout the late adolescence and which declines into early adulthood†. Interestingly, the level of the crest of criminality varies with the race and gender of the offender as well as, accordingly, with those that can be labeled â€Å"high- or low-frequency† offenders (Brannigan 1997, p. 409). With this in mind, Brannigan points out, many programs that are aimed at curbing crime or rehabilitating o ffenders will commit grievous errors if the assumption is made that a certain regimen is effective that fails to account for this â€Å"invariant† feature (Brannigan 1997, p. 410). Another model, social capital or social bond theory, names the additional external factor of positive or negative social pressures in the form of relationships and so-called â€Å"social capital† that exists in the form of a steady job, a good marriage and other stabilizing (or not) relational bonds that influence criminality (Brannigan 1997, p. 411; Belknap 2001, p. 47, Batton 2004, p. 430; Giordano, Cernkovich Rudolph 2002, p. 990). The fundamental approach of this theory is on what induces most people and nearly all females to obey the law. Because of this, it is a distinctly feminist approach in light of the overwhelming data indicating that crime is, in nearly all cases a male issue. In all, there are a number of approaches that one can justifiably take to explain why people commit crimes. Though each one can be viewed as a separate proposition, it does not seem to be a crime to simply use each for what it is, that is, a partial representation of a broad and complex topic. In light of this, it seems to be a reasonable approach to posit a de facto theory by which race, class and gender, in combination with internal self-control and external relational factors work together to create real and virtually real structures and courses that interact over the course of a person’s life span to create a seemingly complete, reasonable and accurate explanation for most criminal acts. Viewed contextually, combinations of such risk factors as being male, having a corrupted network of friends could be overcome by being raised in a caring family environment with other ‘insulating’ factors. Similarly, a moment of poor impulse control could begin a process that quickly spirals out of control. Offenders Women who Violate the â€Å"Norm† In summary of women as principal agents in the commission of a crime, a few general trends become obvious: women commit a very small portion of all crimes, about 4-7% in the US and UK, the crimes they do commit are, on average, fewer, less severe and less likely to be â€Å"professional† or repeat offenders, women form a very small portion of prison populations. (Heidensohn 1997, pp. 491-492) Further, in all crimes except rape, the factor of gender becomes even more disparate as men are not only far more likely to commit a crime, they are even more likely to be a victim (Batton 2004, p. 423). According to 2000 statistics, men accounted for 89.6% of murder arrests and commit suicide at approximately 4x the rate of females (Batton 2004, p. 425). Though women commit far fewer crimes, some authors note that the rate of growth of female offenders is growing at a faster rate than that of males (Heidensohn 1997, pp. 494-496). Despite this, it is important to keep in perspective comparatively diminutive population of female offenders and that a large increase in the relative rate may yet still be quite a small number in absolute value. In regards to our ‘wholly unified’ theory as a composite of ‘all with predictive power’, a review of homicide data from 1960 – 2000 indicates that as female work for participation increased, the rate of murders committed by females has decreased. This suggests that as women gain greater power through increased penetration of established social structures, this has reduced the stress and frustration and subsequent ‘out-of-control’ feeling that can lead to lethal consequences. This finding is in contrast to male homicide rates that, during the same period, either stayed the same or increased, while workforce participation also remained constant (Batton 2004, p. 452). One theme that seems to emerge across studies of deviant behavior in females and males is the tendency of females to reports higher internal sources of problems than males (Storvall, E., L. Wichstrom, H. Pape Nova. 2003, p. 200; Batton 2004, pp. 428-429). Examples of this would be depression, stress from â€Å"success† in breaking through social structures or stress in being frustrated by them. This suggests the possibility that the specific motivations behind the commission behind criminal acts may be more internally driven for females and more external for males. In support of social bond theory are findings from research on female juveniles who socialize in three predominantly different setting with regards to support structures in the form of relationships and friendship networks. In this research, the greater the extent of the female-dominated friendship bonds, the less the extent of property crimes. This effect was greatest in â€Å"school females† and progressively weaker with â€Å"school males† and â€Å"street females† and virtually nonexistent for â€Å"homeless males† (McCarthy, Felmlee, Hagan 2004, p. 805). In regards to women who do commit crimes, particularly violent crimes such as domestic abuse or murder, they do so very much as men seem to do. For example in the case of domestic violence, both women and men were â€Å"equally likely to have used severe violence and inflicted severe injuries†¦, to have previously committed violence against nonintimates, and to have been using drugs or alcohol at the time of their arrest† (Busch Rosenberg 2004, p. 49). Victims In their â€Å"natural† place†¦ Despite males being victims of crimes more than females, no discussion of gender and crime would be complete with out a discussion of women as victims of crimes. Indeed, this fact may even be surprising to many that would think that ‘female’ is synonymous with being weaker and more vulnerable. Though women may not be, on average, physically as strong as men, the image is clearly more powerful than reality and this may propogate the well-documented fact that women, despite being a victim less, fear being a victim more (Belknap 2001, p. 206). There are however, certain crimes that are notably perpetrated almost exclusively against women. The most heinous of these is rape and no legitimate discussion of gender and crime would be complete with its omission. Rape is a crime typically committed against women and, in all likelihood, is committed far more than it is reported. While it is the case that it does disproportionately affect women with figures of 34% of Native American women, 18 % of white women, and 19% for African American indicating that they have been victimized (Belknap 2001, p. 218). An additional study surveyed 930 women randomly who gave responses indicating that 44% had been â€Å"victims of a completed or attempted rape† with 24% indicating a rape did definitively occur. Yet another study indicates that up to 53% of women experiencing some form of sexual assault (Belknap 2001, p. 231). TO put this into perspective, if you are a man, chances are 50/50 that your mother, your wife and your daughter has or will be sexually assaulted. If this was a female issue, it seems that the widespread dissemination of information such as this might affect matters. Though the incidence of any rape is too high, reporting and data gathering on this is itself a confounding issue, due in largely to the twin factors of social pressures to not report a shameful experience and the often uncertain definition of what actually constitutes â€Å"rape† or â€Å"sexual assault†. Also, there is likely the disproportionate reporting of certain types of rape such as the stereotypical â€Å"stranger assault† in which it is more socially acceptable to be a ‘victim’ (Belknap 2001, p. 233). The experience of being violated in the way of a rape is often difficult for women to admit, knowing that they may likely bring negative attention to themselves in the form of â€Å"victim blame† or potentially even with the threat of additional violence. Until comparatively recent times and not until the advent of the feminist influence was there much sympathy in the ‘system’ for rape victims (Belknap 2001, p. 215). Additionally, many of rapes are not the stereotypical ‘man in the bushes’ crime but are committed in situations that are â€Å"fuzzy†. Circumstances involving former consensual partners such as ex-boyfriends or ex-husbands or in scenarios where consent might have been given to point or scenarios that escalate out-of-hand but involved consent for some degree of sexual activity cloud the judgment not only police, prosecutors, and juries but the minds of victims as well. Regardless of the relationships of the victim to the offender who is convicted, Scully, indicates that none of them felt â€Å"guilt† regarding their proven actions. This finding corroborates the findings and predictions of the self-control theory as postulated by Hirschi and Gottfredson in which perpetrators are insensitive to others (Belknap 2001, p. 234). An additional crime that is typically thought of as one in which females are victims is that of domestic violence in which up to 23% of women reporting an incident with this over their lifetimes (Heidensohn 1997, p. 495). This is yet another situation in which there are social structure pressure as well as the familiar problem of definition. In regards to the degree of activity needed to constitute a â€Å"crime†, one study indicates that none of the men that completed a survey on the matter defined a number of listed incidents as a â€Å"crime† while 39% of the surveyed women identified them as such (Heidensohn 1997, p. 495). Clearly, a difference of opinion exists. This difference of opinion, though not justified, is nicely illustrated by research that indicated victims of domestic violence â€Å"justify† it and that the perpetrators â€Å"excuse† it. Specifically, regardless of the degree, women, who comprise 95% of the victims of this crime, either underreport the incidents or the severity of the incidents and men use excuses such as frustration, anger or intoxication to avoid or deny responsibility and justifications to deny â€Å"wrongness† (Belknap 2001, p. 268). In the System The Influence of Dominant Social Structures Paradigms The criminal justice system can be seen as part of the contextual framework that provides for the perpetuation of existing social structures. It can also and has been the cause of much positive change. In this irony of a duality of roles lie specific examples of how these can occur. An example of this occurs in the recently discussed situation of domestic violence. Following an incident, any incident, the police are typically the ones called to address the situation which, according to some view domestic disturbance calls frustrating because they feel they are â€Å"fighting crime†. Additionally, these types of calls can be among the most dangerous due to the unknown risks and the possibility to the police becoming involved with a very emotional perpetrator who may have the perspective that the police are ‘invading the sanctity of his home’ (Belknap 2001, p. 292). On arrival, police may find a situation for which they are untrained to deal in the case that skills such as mediation may be required. Additionally, many calls for assistance are made to prevent or in anticipation of a ‘situation’. If the police defuse the situation by their presence, the situation still exists when they leave†¦ it has only been deferred (Belknap 2001, p. 293). If the police are potentially unprepared to deal with a situation, the courts represent an additional layer of structure that imposes constraints on behaviors. For example, there is a good chance that a matter may not even go to judgment due to either plea bargaining or the defendants refusal to prosecute, sometimes to fear of retribution, sometime with false hopes but always in denial of the sequence of events that has begun (Belknap 2001, p. 294). Another component is the ‘system’ of the courts that merits identification is that of sentencing in cases in which women are offenders rather than being the victims. Though part of the reason the women’s prison population is far smaller than that of men is that far fewer women commit crimes. Despite this, with regards to sentencing for similar crimes, 20% of men convicted go to prison whereas only 5% of women do (Heidensohn 1997, p. 503). One reason for this is postulated to be that of â€Å"chivalry†. This phenomena is marked by the application of stereotypical, broadly-held and socially reinforced belief that one should ‘be nice’ to women (Heidensohn 1997, pp. 503-504). Of final note with regards to the idea of factors within the system that affect the issue of crime and gender are the patterns of employment of women within the ‘system’. In terms of women who are employed either in law enforcement or in the prison system, there are firstly comparatively few with women occupying 9% of police positions, 11.5% of corrections facilities and 20% of attorneys (Belknap 2001, pp. 357-358). This is again reflective a social system that reflects male dominance and a continuing male perspective that is, slowly, adapting to the influence of feminism. Field Perspective A Short Experimental Inquiry into Current Perceptions about Women Violent Crime To test for statistically significant variances with regards to perception of crime, a short survey (Appendix A) was administered to a group of 44 students comprised on 22 males and 22 females. Respondents were asked to read two brief crime scenarios and then recommend a sentence for the perpetrator. The two scenarios were identical with the exception that one involved bodily harm. The results of this survey indicated virtually indistinguishable responses with regards to gender with either case. Despite this, both male and female responders were significantly more likely to sentence more harshly the perpetrator who involved the use of bodily harm by an average of approximately 4.5 months. Utilizing a 2-tailed test, this was significant at the plonger sentence (H0 = sentenceA B) and not just simply a different sentence. With this in mind, the results were significant at the weaker p,0.10 level, a result that would likely change were the sample size larger. The Verdict Moving Forward with Facts†¦ and assumptions While the above experiment did not clearly showing gender differences that might have been expected, it is important to keep in mind that the crime involved property, a likely neutral proposition for which shared social

Hackers vs. Crackers Essay -- Internet Cyberspace Web Online

Hackers vs. Crackers Introduction When you hear the word hacker, you probably think of a nerdy, teen-aged boy sitting behind a computer with sinister plans for his attack flowing through the keystrokes of his fingers. You probably think of a techno-criminal defacing websites, shutting down computer systems, stealing money or confidential information-basically a threat to society. But these descriptions may describe someone else enterely. Many in the computer community contend that this criminal description defines crackers. Hackers, on the other hand, are actually people who enjoy learning how computer systems work, and bettering themselves and the computer community with the information that they gain from their learning. So if there are non-criminal (hackers) and criminal hackers (crackers), is it fair to label both hackers and crackers as hackers? It is important to address this question because the identity of a culture in our society-the hacker culture-is being challenged. It is being defined as good or bad. This good or bad status affects the way Americans use the Internet, the way the government controls or does not control the Internet, and the way technology will grow in the future. Some people say that there is no difference between hackers and crackers; they are both criminals. Others say that there are major differences between hackers and crackers. This paper addresses whether hackers and crackers really are two separate identities and whether it is right for society to define both hackers and crackers as hackers. This paper discusses . The people who believe hackers and crackers are two different groups of people and should be treated as such. . The people who believe there is no differe... ...r Credit." Digital Daily June 8, 1999. February 28, 2000. http://www.time.com/time/digital/daily/o,2822,26529,00.htm Taylor, Paul. "A Sociology of Hackers." The University of East London, United Kingdom. February 16, 2000. http://www.job.am/inet98/2d/2d_1.htm Denning, Dorothy E.. "Concerning Hackers Who Break Into Computer Systems." 13th National Computer Security Conference October 1- 4, 1990. February 22, 2000. http://www.swiss.ai.mit.edu/6095/articles/denning_defense_hackers.txt Vatis, Michael A. "Cybercrime, Transnational Crime, and Intellectual Property Theft." Before the Congressional Joint Economic Committee March 24, 1998. March 1, 2000. http://www.fbi.gov/search?NS-search-page=document&NS-rel-doc-name=/pressrm/congress/congress98/vatis.htm&NS-query=hacker&NS-search-type=NS-boolean-query&NS-collection=FBI_Web_Site&NS-docs-found=34&NS-doc-number=1

Book Review: Jon Krakauer’s “Into the Wild” Essay

In writing â€Å"Into the Wild,† Krakauer’s intention was to uncover the facts (or at least get as close to the facts as possible) surrounding Christopher McCandless’ journey â€Å"into the wild. † Krakauer discusses and presents theories and explanations about McCandless’ reasons for going off into a potentially fatal journey, and also presents investigations into how McCandless came to such a state in his life. Krakauer gives us some idea of the direct cause of McCandless’ death, and his reasons for doing what he did. Krakauer aims to give readers with invaluable insight into the mind of McCandless—how McCandless came about the idea of going to the Alaskan wilderness, what his motivations were, how he planned and managed to survive the grueling trek, and most importantly, â€Å"why? † The author seeks to understand what happened to McCandless in the wild, and to explain why someone so full of promise, who seems to have such an ideal life and much of all that he could ask for, could do what McCandless did. However, Krakauer does not presume to be certain about McCandless reasons, but he presents some very good explanations and allows us to understand McCandless’ mind even more. By revealing many things about the reasons behind McCandless’ death, Krakauer shows us that McCandless was far more than a simple and reckless fool who wasted his life. McCandless, who was an intelligent young man, went off into the Alaskan woods to â€Å"find himself† and to reunite with nature. He was heavily influenced by the literature he had read, to such an extent that he became, most of all, a man in search of himself and of a purpose in life. In order to really â€Å"find† himself, he felt it necessary to cut all ties from society, from his family, and reinvent himself as Alexander Supertramp, thus cutting his ties with his old identity. Whether or not he found what he was looking for in the wild is open to speculation, however Krakauer describes McCandless’s psychological terrain by including anecdotes and quotations from people who were in a similar state of mind as McCandless, as well as drawing parallels with his own life as a mountaineer and adventurer. Each chapter presents different tales from others who have been in the same road as McCandless, people who have also sought the solitude of the wild. Krakauer also interviewed people who have come in contact with McCandless during his journey. By the end of â€Å"Into the Wild,† the readers gains significant understanding of McCandless’ personality. Whether McCandless was brave or foolish, his journey of self-discovery is something that almost everyone can relate with and understand on some level. However, while the book is accessible to anyone who could have some interest in the controversial life and death of Christopher McCandless, it is most geared towards those who have sentiments similar to those that McCandless held regarding society, nature, and how to live. â€Å"Into the Wild† helps us understand McCandless’ character, although by the end of the book, it is still up to the reader to decide if McCandless was â€Å"right† or â€Å"wrong† in having done what he did – whether he was courageoeus or merely foolish.

Arrest of Papon essays

Arrest of Papon essays During the mid 1900s there was a war, World War II, also known as the Holocaust. At this time many Jews had been tortured and killed by the Nazis. A few years ago a man by the name of Maurice Papon had been trailed and arrested for being racist against Jews in France. He had tried to deport many Jews and had been caught doing so. This was something that had not been tolerated by many anymore therefore he had been jailed and now he is out. The arrest of Mr. Papon had been a major issue. His trail was a six month process and the most expensive in French History. In the end he was charged guilty and sentenced to 10 years in jail. He had been a Nazi and was caught in acting upon it. Now, five years after his arrest he is out and free. He was released due to the fact that he was too ill. Many say that he had come out with a healthy smile on his face. The only condition which Papon must follow is that he must get authorization each time he wishes to leave his house. I believe that Papon should not have been released. People like Papon had killed many Jews many years ago and should be punished for their acts. For him to be released is really unbelievable because his acts are unforgivable and the decision should have been more thought out. All in all, the Holocaust was something that many people do not wish to remember therefore when people like Papon try to do similar acts they should not be left unpunished. He should have been left in jail for his full sentence no matter how ill be claimed to be. ...

Narrative Essay on Italian Immigrants Essays

Narrative Essay on Italian Immigrants Essays Narrative Essay on Italian Immigrants Essay Narrative Essay on Italian Immigrants Essay Her parents worked hard to gain US Citizenship and come productive members of society. The values that were instilled upon my aunt years ago still hold true today for her and my family today. TOPICS: Italian American, The Great Depression, Working Conditions, Gaining US Citizenship. For my narrative I spoke with my moms aunt, I Like to refer to her as my aunt also, though I know this Isnt the proper title for her. Her parents moved the family here In the early sasss (1911 was her approximate guess on the year) from Italy. When the came here her oldest brother, was already 5 years old. After arriving here the settled onto a small town in Pennsylvania, named Wampum. Wampum was a small (approximately 1,200 residents) suburb of Pittsburgh. Wampum was full of other Italian immigrants so they fit right in. Her father began working at the local lime quarry, where all the other Italian immigrants in town also worked. The quarry produced the lime used by Portland Medusa Cement Co. Her mother stayed home and tended to the family and home. During the next few years, 2 more sons and 3 daughters were born. The first born once immigrating here, a son was killed at the age of 10, by an unidentified hit and run driver. This was very hard on the family, especially her mother; since he had been the first born In the US and had acted as the Interpreter for her. They all spoke Italian around the house, but her father spoke some English at work, and the children all learned English In school. Her mother also took some night school classes as the children got older. The classes taught her sewing, enough English to get by in daily life, and helped her to pass her citizenship test. Her father and brother also eventually became US citizens. My aunt talked about going to school and being made fun of for being both Italian/Catholic in a predominately White/Protestant area. The kids in elementary school would tease her by saying Hunky day go shinny walk, eat your macaroni/ spaghetti with worms on top which would bring my aunt to tears. Her mom would say for her to Just tell them l dont eat macaroni or spaghetti, I eat steak! Looking back she laughs about It but at the time It was very difficult for her. She also had many Issues once graduating High School flying a Job. Many people In the community adulterated against the Italians, both for their ethnicity and their religious beliefs. After graduating High School in 1943 she moved to Erie, Pennsylvania to work as a dental assailant. (l tank tins Is winner seen met near TLS husband, but she didnt want to talk about it to me. ) She was able to get this Job due to WI going on at the time and them now training women to do mens Jobs that were away at war. Another topic she touched on was The Great Depression of the sasss. They were very poor, but they didnt really notice it cause so was everyone else during these times. She talked about walking the tracks in town, looking for coal that had fallen off assign trains. They collect as much as they could and use it to heat their house all winter. They also would plant/tend to a garden during the warm months, which in turn provided enough vegetables to can and eat during the winter. They also had chickens which provided them more then enough eggs to bake what they needed. Her father had built an outdoor oven in the backyard to cook bread in. She remembers the bags that flour used to come in and how her mother would always make a tablecloth and plate mats out of the old pages. In 1939/1940 steel arrived in the area. Her brothers started working in that field. The one worked at B. Wilcox Tube Company, working with the steel they put inside tires. It was a good Job that he stuck with until his death. (she didnt say if it was a work related death) Her other brother worked in the Ellwood City Tube Mill. Her sisters were now old enough to also work and worked in various retail type stores in town. She was the only one who moved away from home. The lime quarry where her father was working was eventually stripped of all the lime. It was then turned into a growing facility for Snowman Mushrooms. This provided lots of new Jobs for the people in town, including the women. (She wasnt sure what the women exactly did there though. ) The last topic she touched on was the amount of religion the family was involved in. They were a very Catholic family, attending Church every Sunday, and also on Tuesday and Thursday nights. Her mother loved going to Church. The priest spoke Latin and he and her mother would talk for hours since Latin and Italian are one in the same language. She was very adamant on telling me and making sure I wrote down that all of the ids graduated from High School, the whole family did in fact become US citizens and also they received NO extra help during The Depression. I know from also talking to my other family members that Italians are big on family, and they like to help each other, but not receive much outside help. The boys in the family are treated like kings. This is very apparent when you look at both my moms brother and my brother. They both seem to do no wrong, and the women bend over backwards to take care of them and make sure their needs are met.

Strategic Analysis of Waitrose in Grocery Market by Using Strategic Essay

Strategic Analysis of Waitrose in Grocery Market by Using Strategic Management Model and Theory - Essay Example The U.K retail market seems to be on the maturity stage of its lifecycle, however, growth is still quite prominent. The market is on its verge to a 15% growth in the next 5 years (IGD, 2010). Economic dynamics such as rising interest rates and consumer prices, house prices as well job insecurity are only few of a plethora of factors affecting firms in this sector (IGD, 2010).The new government following the election in May, 2010 also seems to bear impact by way of its proposed contractionary fiscal and monetary policy which could mean tough times for the high end markets. Waitrose- the company The company has its roots in 1904 when it was founded by Waite, Rose and Taylor (Waitrose, 2011). It was acquired later by John Lewis (an established partnership); hence, it was not until 1955 that the first Waitrose supermarket was born (Waitrose, 2011). At present the company has a strong foothold in the European market with 243 stores in Wales, Scotland and England, employing more than 37,00 0 people (Waitrose, 2011). The company claims to offer value for money along with convenience shopping. It targets the affluent segments of the market and is a high end store and follows a differentiation strategy (Randall & Seth, 2011). Thus, the company offers high quality, high priced products (Randall & Seth, 2011). ... aitrose does not follow the lead of its competitors and, instead, has always reflected itself as a premium quality brand, focusing on product quality rather than price (Randall & Seth, 2011). Furthermore, the company, under the umbrella of the John Lewis group, has projected itself as a socially ethical and responsible entity by sponsoring events such as â€Å"Fair-trade Bananas† and â€Å"Bag for life† (Cohen, 2010). SWOT Analysis Strengths: The company was an industry first in introducing the Quick check, self-scanning technology in its stores which reflects upon its innovative strategy and focus on delivering superior customer value (Jones & John, 2011). Furthermore, the company works under the umbrella of the John Lewis group which has given it enormous advantage in terms of economies of scale and established links with suppliers. The company was amongst the first to develop its line of own brands; it houses over 16,000 brands under its own name (MarketWatch: Global Round-up, 2009). Furthermore, the company won another industry first by winning the award for Organic food. Weaknesses: The company’s own label brands constitute almost 55% of its product mix. Thus, it is highly dependent on its own brands and ought to stock other brands (Jones & John, 2011). Furthermore, the company’s expansion opportunities are limited due to present coverage of its retail outlets. The company also has potential unfilled gaps in the market that it isn’t catering to and is positioned quite farther away from its 4 main competitors including Tesco, ASDA, Morrison’s and Sainsbury’s as well as Marks & Spencer. It has been positioned as a premium end brand and is perceived as too expensive compared to its rivals which is one of the major factors behind its low market share (3%). The

Alternative Fuel Vehicles Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Alternative Fuel Vehicles - Essay Example Later, with the invention of compression ignition engine (commonly called Diesel Engine), light fuel oil, obtained from fractional distillation of crude oil, became a source of energy for urban transport vehicle. Today most of the cars run on these two above mentioned fuels courtesy their high energy contents and easy availability. Before moving into the details of alternative fuels available today, we briefly discuss the reasons, which led the automotive industries and governments to discourage conventional fuels and invest in alternative technologies. The main factor that triggered governments’ interest in alternative fuel research was the oil crisis of 1973 and 1979 which was followed by a steep rise in oil prices. Moreover, the increase in green house gases (GHG) emission and other environment concerns have caused the governments to discourage use of conventional fuels and promote the use of alternative fuels with no or very low GHG emission. Scientists and researchers have worked on different cost effective and environment friendly alternatives of gasoline and diesel oil that can be used in commercial vehicles efficiently. The most popular of them being ethanol and other bio-fuels, natural gas, propane or liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), hydrogen, batteries (electrical energy) and compressed air. These are discussed in the following paragraphs. The most popular of alternative fuels are the bio fuels and among them, ethanol. First vehicle to run on ethanol was Ford Model T in 1908. The recent developments in the technology to use ethanol as alternative fuel started in 1970s due to the oil price hike. Ethanol is mostly used as a blend with gasoline. Special engines called flexible fuel engines are developed to use these blended fuels. These vehicles can run on fuels having 10%, 15% or up to 85% by volume ethanol concentration (called E10, E15, E85 respectively). Use of blended fuels decreases green house gas emissions